The Lincoln Lawyer

The Lincoln Lawyer is a 2011 movie directed by Brad Furman. The main Character in this movie, Mick Haller is played by Matthew McConaughey who plays a defense attorney. The part of Louis Roulet is played by Ryan Phillippe. Louis Roulet is a young wealthy realtor who murders prostitutes for his own sick pleasure. The role of Frank Levins, Mick Hallers best friend who is also a detective is played by William H. Macy. The role of Mick Hallers ex wife , Maggie McPherson is played by Marisa Tomei.The Lincoln Lawyer is about Mick Haller a semi successful defense attorney who works out of his Lincoln town car drove by a former client of his who owes him money for his services. Haller has a wealthily client who has a fool proof plan to beat the system. When Louis Roulet, a wealthy realtor is a accused of raping a prostitute, Haller is asked to defend him. Roulet claims that he is being set up by this women for money. Haller and his detective Frank Levins take a further look at the evidence a nd realize that Roulet might just be linked to a similar case from a few years back.Roulet starts to realize that Haller and Levins are connecting the dots that he might be involved in the former murder case. Roulet pays a unfriendly visit to Hallers home and threats him and his family. The next day Frank Levins is found dead in his home. He was shot by an antique gun, that so happen belonged to Haller. Haller had a voice message on his machine from Levins right before he died which was the ticket to putting Roulet behind bars for life. The former case that Haller had worked on put a non-guilty man in prison for life.When he discovered that Roulet was to blame for the girls murder he wanted to make things right but because of legal issues and him being Roulets lawyer he could not bring this out in that point in time. In court the case gets dismissed because the district attorney put a documented lier on stand to testify against Roulet. Little did Roulet know that Haller had a plan. He had the witness say something about his former case while on the stand, which pointed to Roulet being the one that killed the girl.As soon as Roulet was released for one crime he was charged for another. They still did not have enough to keep Roulet behind bars though. This is where the message from Frank Levins comes in. Roulet had got a ticket right outside of the girls house who was murdered which was just what they needed to charge Roulet. There are a few legal issues in this film that can be discussed but the main one I would like to point out is a lawyer must not represent a client if doing so creates a concurrent conflict of interest.That could include the significant risk posed to the attorney representing one client and finding himself materially limited by the lawyer’s own interest or to those a former client. Haller clearly cannot serve as Roulet’s lawyer, especially as details come out about his involvement in the murder for which another of the attorney ’s clients was charged and convicted. His client Roulet, of course, is smart to choose Haller as his attorney.That’s because, even if his lawyer gets forced off his case, everything Roulet had already told Haller from the initial meeting onward was subject to the confidence of attorney-client privilege. That privilege prohibits a court or other government tribunal from compelling the revelation of confidential communications between an attorney and a client if the subject of the communication concerns the professional relationship between the attorney and the client. The client is the one that can claim or waive the privilege.The privilege does not apply if the client seeks the attorney’s services to engage in or assist in a future crime or fraud. So it seems as though Haller cannot break the privilege since he represents Roulet who has told him confidential, incriminating information. In both reality and in the tension-filled movie, it becomes clear that, perha ps, Haller’s best escape from his moral and ethical issues may be by coming to grips that Roulet is guilty and is a horrible human being and that he actually may have at one time represented a innocent man who he had plead guilty for a crime he did not commit.

Sub-Cultures within the Latino Culture in America

There are many different cultures and people from different ethnic backgrounds throughout all of the United States. We have many different people that migrated here from all types of countries and from all of the continents. The main culture I will be talking about today in my interviews is the Mexican culture. The Latino culture contains many sub cultures including many South American countries and Central America. This will be an in depth interview of Mexican culture, but it is only a small fraction compared to the amount of different cultures we have in our country today.The first person that I interviewed was my girlfriend, Amarise Christine Morales. Amarise was born in Tulare, Ca, but has lived in Fresno, Ca most of her life. Her family originated from Guadalajara, Mx. She says her family has many traditions for different types of events or purposes. For example, every New Years her abuela will cook a big 5 gallon pot of menudo. Every Christmas Eve her family will get together a nd make tamales for the holidays. â€Å"It’s a very fun time with the family and we all stay up late eating and opening presents† said Amarise.On Christmas Eve it’s a tradition for them to go to Midnight Mass and afterwards they open up their gifts. â€Å"One thing that’s easy to notice about my family, we all speak Spanish† said Amarise. â€Å"If you’re around my family and you want to speak to my grandparents, you must speak to them in Spanish. If you do not, its kind of like insulting to them. † Church is also a major tradition in Mexican Culture. Amarise was baptized when she an infant. She made her communion when she was in the fourth, her family was very proud. She then continued to make her confirmation in her early teenage years.This made her grandparents even more proud of her and showed her obedience to Jesus El Padre. When Amarise turned 15 years old she had a quinceyera. She says it was her favorite birthday out of them al l. She had a huge party at a hall with her friends and cousins in the quince. They were all dressed so nice and formal, and Amarise had a beautiful turquoise dress that her Abuelita had bought for her. Over 150 people attended and she had received many gifts and lots of money. One thing that she kept saying was that there are no better fiestas than a Mexican fiesta.She describes her family get togethers with lots of food and appetizers like chips and salsa, guacamole, and drinks like horchata. They love barbequing for the days when their favorite soccer team, Chivas, play on tv. During Christmas time a week before the 25th, her family will take a trip to Mexico to visit her great grandpa. Usually the family will come back after Christmas, but her Abuela will stay until February. Her great grandpa passed away about 6 months ago at the age of 95. He was a great man that owned his own dairy in Mexico, he left his dairy and all his belongings to all of his kids.Amarise’s Abuela e nded up receiving all of the livestock and she sold them to another dairy in Mexico for well over $200,000. I asked Amarise about any folk tales or scary stories she used to hear as a kid and she told me about three main ones. First was the Chupacabra, which is a made up legend about a weird animal that is mixed species and it kills livestock and sucks their blood dry. I’ve also heard of this story when I was child so it wasn’t knew hearing it. Another story was about the llorona, which meant the lady that cries.She was a lady that drowned her children in a river, and whenever Amarise went camping she said her older cousin would always tease her and scare her about it. The last urban legend was the Cocui, which was the Mexican Boogey Man that lived under your closet and bed. All of these are Mexican stories and folktale that many familes pass on. The second person I interviewed was Amarise’s grandmother, Maria Guadalupe Carpio Morales. I had to have Amarise tran slate our questions and answers because my Spanish isn’t fluent enough. Maria Morales was born in Guadalajara Mexico on May 25th 1945.Her mother Sophia and father Carlos Carpio lived on a 50 acre ranch in Guadalajara, Mexico. They owned their own dairy farm and sold many goods such as livestock, dairy products such as milk, cheese, and butter. Maria’s mother Sophia died when she was a young child at the age of 10 years old. It was devastating but their family of eight kept strong and continued to survive. When Maria was 14 her family decided for them to have a better life then they should come to America. He wanted his children and their children to have more opportunities than he did. So their brothers and sisters ended up getting heir legal papers in Mexico, and then drove across the boarder for a long trip to Stockton, California.Her father stayed in Guadalajara to manage the family business with her oldest sister Sophia, named after her mother. That summer Maria an d her brothers and sisters started working in the fields in Stockton. Maria’s job was packing fruit like apricots, peaches, strawberries and all other types of fruits and vegetables. She also did a lot of the harvesting at Beacon’s Island. To Maria, Mexican culture revolves all around your family, morals, and traditions and religion. You have to be proud of where you come from, Mexican culture is about being proud of who you are† said Maria. â€Å"My Father taught all of my brothers and sisters to look out for one another because with out family you have nothing. † Ever since Maria born her family has been very religious. She was baptized in a church is Guadalajara, but she does not recall the name of it. She has been a practicing Catholic woman since all she can remember. Every Saturday even until this very day she attends mass at 6:45pm to 7:30pm. She refers to Jesus as Mi Padre Jesus.There are many traditions that Maria has in her life and that she has taught to her family. When a person dies she prays the Rosery prayer to the Virgin Mary for nights in a row to essentially pray that persons soul into heaven. She also practices lint, which is 40 days before Easter Sunday when Jesus walked 40 days and 40 nights without eating anything. So on Ash Wednesday she gives up something that’s valuable to her, but she did not tell us what that was. She said its not good to flaunt what you given up because its disrespectful to who your doing it for, Jesus.During Lent Season to avoid eating meat on Fridays Maria will cook either fish, like ceviche or shrimp to substitute for the meat. She loves making shrimp cocktail as well as her kids and grandkids. The only time she ever worked was in the fields. Later on in life she moved to Los Angeles with her sisters. It was there where she met Elano Morales, her husband until this day. She stopped working once they became married to raise a family and take care of her three children. One of thos e children was Carlos Morales, the first generation to be born here in the United States.He is the father of Amarise who I earlier had interviewed. Maria now lives in Tulare, CA with her husband and some relatives. She continues to pass on the traditions and morals that were passed onto her and only hopes that her grandchildren will continue to her families story. I learned many new things about Mexican culture when interviewing my girlfriend and her grandmother. But I also realized that I wasn’t much different from them. A lot of these things I have already heard of or learned about. For example, all the folklore and scary stories were stories my grandparents told me.Another thing that is similar is that my grandparents also worked in the fields when they were young. This shows me that everyone’s connected in a way and we know more about one another than we thought. Even though we all come from many different backgrounds, there are many similarities. I believe that th is assignment made me a better person and less judgmental of people that do not know how to speak English, regardless of their race. This project really opened me up to new ideas and showed me a different side to the word culture and what it means to Latinos and Latinas.

Work Experience

For this essay, my task is to produce an essay explaining what my work experience week was like. Even though I can't put every detail down, I will write about the most important parts of my week that will remain as good, and some also embarrassing memories. When I heard about work experience my first thoughts about it were, ‘what if Im not good enough. ‘ and ‘I wonder where I'll be put. ‘ To say the least, I was very nervous. We had forms to fill in about work experience. I had to tick off what I would prefer to do, so I chose to work in retail and fashion. So I was likely to work in a clothes shop, ironically that's where I got put. I was now officially working in Burtons. I wanted to work in retail because I was generally interested in fashion, as at the time I wanted to become a fashion designer. I soon realised working in retail had nothing to do with the fashion itself, it did however, have a lot to do with business. At first I was a bit worried because I thought only men worked there, so to calm my nerves, me and a few of my friends decided to go and have a little look in there and see what it's like. Luckily, I did see a couple of women in there so I realised that I wouldn't be the only one. Besides, working with young lads weren't going to be a bad thing was it? As the time got closer, I had to start thinking about travel and what I'd wear there. These small problems were soon easily solved. I decided that I would get the bus there, but because I was placed at the Burtons in Bracknell, I would have to leave about an hour before starting time, as buses took about 40-50 minutes at rush hour. What I was going to wear soon became no object as I went shopping the weekend before. New clothes- every girl's passion. So I was pretty much set; I had my clothes, my way of getting there, and everything I needed was organised. Monday finally came, as I sat on the bus at 8. 0am, the nerves soon reappeared. For the next 40 minutes, I sat there thinking about what it would be like, but soon acknowledged that the majority of my year was in the same position as I was. I also recognised that it wouldn't be as bad as I thought. So when the bus stopped I walked positively towards the shop, the funny thing was, I was slightly early, so I had to stand outside, I felt a bit out of place at that point, and im sure I looked quite stupid. It didn't matter too much to me though; I just concentrated on making a good impression. So I stood waiting patiently for the grey, shutter to slowly open. About ten minutes later, they eventually did. And the shop was up and ready for the day ahead. I stood up straight, and confidently walked towards the front desk where the employees were all gathered. I introduced myself and got fully acquainted with all the staff present. The manager, Andrea, gave me a brief introduction on what goes on at the store, and just small bits of necessary information id need to know to get me throughout the week like where my locker was based. She then sent me and another employee- Michael, down to the staff area to do my health and safety assessment, just to see what I knew about the process †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ but before I went to do the assessment Michael took me outside to see where I would have to go if a fire occurred. This didn't take long. After that I proceeded to do the assessment. It wasn't very interesting, in fact, I actually almost fell asleep! Putting that aside, it was quite an eventful morning. Throughout that day, I just got to know a bit more about the staff; I also asked a few questions about the shop as well, one that I asked was if they had cameras in the store itself, and Richard, another employee, said to me â€Å"Would you like people watching you whilst you're working all day? I don't think I'll ever forget that, in reply to his question, I said no. So Burtons didn't have security cameras? This led me onto thinking whether anyone stole from the shop. Surely they didn't otherwise they would put cameras in, but I found out a bit later on that people do steal. This isn't good for their inventory either. So throughout the week I'd hear one employee after another saying that they found a tag and coat hanger on the floor, this annoyed Andrea a lot. Another thing that annoyed Andrea was when a group of my friends all decided to come in and greet me on my first day. I knew that this wasn't very professional so I told them that they would have to leave. After that small incident, Andrea explained that I was to act like I was a real employee to Burton and my friends were not aloud to come in and distract me like they did. I understood that and carried on with what I was doing. My time at Burtons was fairly boring, with the work that is. I had to go around the shop making sure everything was in its rightful place; another thing I had to do was sort the delivery totes. I had to unwrap the products, tag them, cube them and then go and find where they were meant to go. It made the time go by, and I preferred doing this to walking around the shop organising the clothing. One thing I learnt from this was that in retail, the people don't call the boxes ‘boxes'. They call them ‘totes' I don't know why this is but it' just what they used. So that was what delivery was. This is all I tended to do during work experience. Id have a laugh with the other staff members, it helped because their ages ranged from 16 to 20. So I found it easy to get along with them. This helped me feel more comfortable there. Towards the end of the week, a couple of the staff decided to play a little joke on me, so when I got back off my 15 minute break, Richard told me to go downstairs to see Andrea. So I discontinued what I was going to get on with, and pondered down to see her. She and another employee gave me a task. This was to walk over to Topshop, and ask the manager for a ‘long weight' me being unaware of this joke, agreed to it and went to do what they had asked. I wasn't really thinking about what they had asked for, I was thinking more about not making any mistakes. So when I arrived, I went to the front desk and asked for the ‘long weight'. The lady at the till looked at me puzzled for a second, and then called for assistance. the manager came out and told me it was a joke, and that there was no such thing as a long weight, well apart from the long wait I had received from the ‘long weight'. Once I had understood what had happened, me and my extremely red face exited the store and remained back to Burtons. Only to come back to be laughed at more, I was not amused! I just continued back to my work and didn't say much after that. So that was my embarrassing moment; I guess it could have been worse, but I still didn't appreciate being humiliated in front of a shop full of strangers. But despite that incident, I found the week to be a big wake up call in all honesty. I never thought that working in a shop could ever be so tiring! I was on my feet for seven and a half hours. As I had an hour for lunch and two fifteen minute breaks. The thing was, when the shop had very few customers, that was the most tiring part, because there was nothing there to keep me occupied. For all five days, there was at least an hour where this occurred. I dreaded it! In conclusion, I found the week very productive, I learnt a lot more than I expected to, met new people, got an insight about what real work is, and my real accomplishment†¦ getting to work on time everyday. I was very proud of myself for this, and it still amazes me to this day. I would defiantly advise for the work experience programme to continue as it worked wonders for me, and to thank me for the work I did, Andrea gave me a box of maltesars for the hard work and dedication I put in there. She also said that I had a place there to work if I wanted it. I didn't take up the offer as I don't feel that's the best place for me.

Health literacy and patient safety & role of advance practise nurse Term Paper

Health literacy and patient safety & role of advance practise nurse - Term Paper Example Studies have shown that patient friendly communication and an open attitude to answering questions are the best strategies for helping patients understand medical information, and caring for them more effectively. Health literacy is defined as â€Å"the degree to which individuals have the capacity to obtain, process and understand basic health information and services needed to make appropriate health decisions† (Ratzan and Parker, 2000). The first step for an advanced practice nurse to measure levels of health literacy in a patient, is to overcome barriers of communication and create an open shame free environment. An attitude of helpfulness and understanding of his/her problems, and offering an environment of privacy to answer questions and discuss details of history, education and medications, will enhance understanding and a feeling of adequacy in patients. Having a family member present if the patient feels more comfortable, and willingness to answer any questions, even repetitive ones, help instill confidence. An advanced practice nurse needs to take patient backgrounds into account while communicating with them. Things like can they read the instructions on pill boxes or do they recognize them by color? are important indications of the level of health literacy in patients.

ADVANCED TAX Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

ADVANCED TAX - Essay Example One of the strategies the couple can use to reduce the tax amount of the capital gain expected is to time carefully the disposal of the shares to fall into diverse tax years and take advantage of annual exemptions in each year (King & Carey, 2014). This strategy has the potential of reducing significantly the amount of tax that the couple will pay for the capital gain accumulated from the sale of the shares. This is because capital gains less than  £10,600 per annum are not taxed on individuals (Mclaughlin, 2013). Thus, the couple can spread the sale of the shares in seven different periods to ensure the capital gains fall in different years. This will ensure the capital gains accumulated are exempted from taxation. The capital gain that will be realized if the disposal is timed in seven different periods will be ( £68,000/ 7 =  £9,714.286). This capital gain is below  £10,600 per annum that will allow the gain to be exempted from taxation completely. Similarly, the shares can held under individual savings account (ISA) that will ensure the CGT liability is exempted from capital gains accumulated after disposal of the shares (King & Carey, 2014). Currently, the maximum value of shares that can be held under the ISA is  £11,520 for tax year 2013/14 (HMRC, 2013). Thus, the couple can hold  £11,520 of the  £12,000 share value to exempt the capital gain from these shares from capital gain tax liability. This implies that only ( £11,520/  £1.50 = 7,680) share of the 8,000 will be held under the ISA. Thus, the capital gain that will be accumulated from the extra shares held outside ISA will be as computed below. Another strategy Bob can use to reduce the tax amount liability from the disposal of the shares is transferring the shares prior to ensuing disposal to his wife Isobel. This is because share transfers between civil partners do not carry gain or loss

A Case Study of Property Developing Firm Using Soft System Methodology Dissertation

A Case Study of Property Developing Firm Using Soft System Methodology - Dissertation Example The author of the essay "A Case Study of a Property Developing Firm Using Soft Systems Methodology" assumes that SSM study fits the concept of action research arising first in the behavioral sciences. Researchers view of the limitations of studying complex real social events in a laboratory, the artificiality of splitting out single behavioral elements from an integrated system. The action-research method fits the Soft System Methodology in which it involve in a change progress, in the system itself, as a means to both practical action and an experience relevant to the research aim of developing systems concepts. Being concerned with intervention in purposeful systems, the action researcher, unlike natural scientists, can express his research aims as hopes but cannot with certainty design them into his ‘experiences’. He is prepared to react to whatever happens in the research situation. He has to follow wherever the situation leads him or stop the research. This study advocates that the continues use of SSM on the property development help firms on the organization learning, this allow users to learn from their action systematically, as well as generating creative problem solving strategies for their growth and continuity. The strength of SSM comes from familiarity of the systems and knowledge of users; however, users need patient and practice to be able to explore the usefulness of SSM. Lastly, SSM seems to be a useful tool for large co-operations, which consist of many people, departments and operation entities.

Aftermath of WWI and the Treaty of Versailles Essay - 1

Aftermath of WWI and the Treaty of Versailles - Essay Example They were not at all very happy with what they got. Germany was forced into signing a lopsided agreement that to her citizens was robbery in broad daylight. They were made to pay reparations that at that time was an astronomical amount. To add insult to injury the German people lost a significant part of their territory. Germany was carved up like a juicy present and the gifts distributed to the loyal member of the victorious allies. It was worse than any physical abuse as the German people was stripped bare of dignity and even hope of a better future. The heart of the people looked like Berlins bombed out dwellings, like the scarred remains of burnt buildings. It was a tough time. It was the worst defeat ever experienced by any nation. The thought of a league of nations working together to turn a conquered foe into a submissive and docile beast is shameful. But the nations around Europe were not finished yet with the undressing of this people. They wanted to be sure that Germanys much vaunted armed forces will never rise again. The League of Nations made all the necessary steps to be certain that never again will Germany terrorize the world. The once proud nation was brought to her knees. But the humiliation did not stop there. The leaders of the victorious allies pinned the majority of the guilt and all the wickedness of the Great War on Germany. It was an unmistakable charge as one reads the Versailles treaty. From then on, something akin to rage was burning in the hearts of the German people, most specially her patriots. Hitler shared in the ignominy of her people and Fatherland. Yet instead of breaking down in perpetual state of weakness and utter hopelessness his sinister mind began to plot the most daring comeback in the history of national politics. Hitler and Nazism was able to achieve what the German people had been trying to do since 1919 and that is to voice out their disgust on the infamous treaty.

Employment loyalty at Rhythm Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Employment loyalty at Rhythm - Essay Example Thus, the discussion below focuses on the more important results from statistical analysis of the survey data. The response rate to the survey consisted 37 percent in the 31-40 age-group, 30 percent in the 21–30 age group, 27 percent within the 41–50 age-group and seven percent in the over 50 age-group. Unfortunately, due to the nature of the respondents’ country cultural constraints, all the respondents were males. A vast majority of the cohorts, 67 percent, were married with children and 27 percent were single, but seven percent of the respondents did not present a response to the question about their marital status. Seven percent had a postgraduate master’s degree as attributed to increased proportion of postgraduate level education in Saudi Arabia. A very significant proportion of the respondents included in the survey did not answer the questions about their area of expertise, job title and department worked at in Rhythm, and this was probably because of a fear of recognition in a company, which is not a firm with a very large number of employees. Only twenty percent of the respondents were willing to share information about their total work experience and number of years at Rhythm as illustrated in Figure 4.1.5 and Figure 4.1.6. The longest serving employee at Rhythm had served for 15 years with the company after having joined Rhythm with only one year of experience. However, because a vast majority of respondents did not answer the previously mentioned questions, it will be difficult to draw valid conclusions about stability of employment offered by Rhythm. Forty eight percent of Rhythm employees were deeply involved with their company and considered their organisation’s problems as their own, as illustrated in the figure below. This is a healthy ratio and the previously mentioned figure suggests a high degree of employee involvement in Rhythm. Only 26 percent of the respondents indicated that they did not have a

How Fascism Managed To Come To Power in Italy, In 1922 Essay

How Fascism Managed To Come To Power in Italy, In 1922 - Essay Example National belonging to an ethnicity is highly emphasized in this ideology. It does not promote any tenets of democracy. These range from free media, individual freedom and legislation of laws. Clearly, the attempts to impose the fascist ideas have led to war. For instance, the World War II and the holocaust show the effects of fascism. Fascist movements stand against all other political ideologies and only borrow the ideal-type characteristics that emphasized on ethnicity. Although the emphasis on fascism was nationalism, its main appeal was international. In fascism, there is intense political patriotism, and it is in this that the fascist leaders build their main foundation on. In this essay, I will discuss factors that enhanced the success of fascism in Italy during Benito Mussolini’s regime. The paper majorly focuses on explaining how the success was due to the anti-party characteristic of fascism. Benito Mussolini was the founder and leader of fascism in Italy. From his ea rly life, there was immense interest in fascism as the best technique to improving the system in Italy. As a journalist, his main topics covered on fascism. Mussolini was a prime minister in Italy after the First World War. His fascist ideas propelled him to become a powerful figure in Italian politics by this time. After the First World War, most economies were shattered including Italy’s economy. It is in this respect that Mussolini emerged as a fascist leader. He developed ideas against communism and explained that it was the reason for failure of the Italian state. His fascist ideas were aptly informed and in most cases, they were populist-based. There was unrest in most cities since the unemployment levels were on the rise (Burgwyn, 2012 p16). In his quest to initiate fascism in Italy, Mussolini promised to build Italy and recreate the Roman Empire. He developed armed gangs known as the Blakshirts who dealt with criminal any people causing trouble. This group also dissol ved protests and strikes. In some Italian cities, the fascist were the police officers. Clearly, fascism by Mussolini was a technique and not a doctrine. He used it to gain credibility that is more public. Mussolini rose as the prime minister when he threatened to organize demonstrations in Rome, in October 1992. This was during the reign of King Emmanuel III. Since Mussolini had great public support, his wish was granted by the king (Townley, 2002 p98). The king understood that he was in no position to counter Mussolini’s effect on all the people in Italy. Fascism by this time had grown in terms of public support. Once Mussolini became the prime minister, the king allowed him to be a dictator for a year. Up to this time, there was evident cowardice depicted by King Emmanuel. Mussolini then developed his fascist ideologies in full swing. He reformed most of the existing systems in Italy. These are in the sense of political, social and economic structures in Italy. Clearly, fa scism was a technique used, by Mussolini, to achieve nationalism in Italy but also gain an international appeal. In his first functions as the new prime minister, Mussolini turned Italy to a totalitarian state. He restructured everything in the Italian state. This was on an effort to build fascism as a strong ideology in Italy. The government had total control over everything in Italy. As the prime ministe

Impact of Market Imperfections on International Capital Markets Essay

Impact of Market Imperfections on International Capital Markets - Essay Example This paper makes an assessment of the impact of the market imperfections on the functioning of the international capital markets. The perfect market is an economic model which describes a hypothetical market condition in which no producer or consumer has an absolute control to influence the prices. As laid down by the concept of Pareto efficiency a perfect market model would eventually lead to a totally efficient outcome. The theories of demand and supply have been evolved using the analysis of perfectly competitive markets. Efficient allocation and use of resources and maximization of social welfare characterize the perfect market equilibrium (Writing Campus). The perfect market model assumes the presence of certain conditions which make the prices move towards economic equilibrium instantaneously. However these conditions are to be treated as sufficient but not necessary conditions. In a perfect market there exist a large number of small producers and consumers. Because of their relative sizes the actions of these players do not have any significant impact on the others. The prices are set by the market and the firms represent only price takers (Writing Campus). In the perfect market model the goods and services represent perfect substitutes to each other. All the firms in the market sell identical products and there is no product differentiation among the individual products (Writing Campus). Perfect and Complete Information All the players in the market have perfect and complete information about the prices and the activities of other players in the market. The prices set by different firms in the market are known to all the players (Writing Campus). Equal Access One of the major assumptions in the perfect market model is that all the firms in the market have equal access to production technologies and resources, since the technologies and resources are considered to be perfectly mobile (Writing Campus). Free Entry There are no restrictions on the entry to or exit from the market for any firm. The firms may enter and leave the market as they wish and such exit will not have any additional burden on the firms. There is the existence of complete independence in the market that the individual buyers and sellers act independently of each other. The market is structured in such a way that there is no scope for a group of buyers and sellers to join together to influence the prices for their common interest. In other words there is no possibility of cartels or collusion in a perfect market model (Writing Campus). Apart from the above conditions there are certain other behavioural assumptions which also form the basis of a perfect market model. They are: It is the objective of the consumers to achieve maximum utility and the objective of the producers is to maximize their profits. The perfect market model is subjected to severe criticisms on the ground that the model is too simplified and the simplifications are irrelevant and inappropriate to describe the kind of society, market etc. This model can be regarded as a description of one type of market structure with most of its assumptions getting violated in the real world. For instance the firms may not have perfect information about each other. The usefulness of perfect market mo

Rites of Passage Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Rites of Passage - Essay Example The cost of providing subsidized housing was high therefore the state would latter change to provide a relatively cheaper ‘outdoor relief’ to disadvantaged individuals who lived with their relatives or friends. This relief worked efficiently in providing quality living standards, despite the economic depression where massive lay-off occurred resulting to high levels of unemployment of able- bodied people (Joanne, 1966). The article ‘Rites of Passage’ represents a beneficiary of public relief trying to give back to the society. Cephas Ribble, a sixty eight year old man, enters into County Department of Public Welfare with the sole intention of donating farm product to the welfare so that they foodstuff can be distributed to the poor and needy people. On arrival he seems not sure whether he is presentable or not. Additionally, the staff present in the office had the assumption that all elderly people visiting the office are in need of assistance as it had been the norm. Mr. Ribble does not realize that the public assistance once given to him no longer exists. He explains how the relief aid provided to farmers in 1934 had sustained his family. He further explains how he worked hard to buy his house and pay off the debts that his family had. He requests the woman to bring men to his truck to off load his massive food donation. However, he does not realize that laws had changed and food donations were no longer necessary. Despite his good conscience and massive donation, Cephas’s truck blocks all the workers’ cars and all workers leave the office to assist him offload. The donation suffers sharp criticism due to disorganized distribution of the food with some protesting that the food contains contraceptive medicine, others claim racism in the mode of distribution (Joanne, 1966). Mr. Cephas is a wise and

Cost of Capital Essay Example for Free

Cost of Capital Essay 1. WACC is used for discounting cash flows in the future, thus all the modules of cost must reflect firm’s future abilities in raising capital. Cohen made the mistake of using the historical data in estimating the cost of debt yet the share price has changed considerably over time. The market value of equity should be used instead of book value. 2. Cohen calculates the cost of debt by taking total interest expense for the year 2001 and dividing it by the companys average debt balance. This is an estimate of the true cost of debt, but is inaccurate and may not reflect Nike’s current or future cost of debt. 3. Cohen obtained the corporate tax rate of 38% which is used to calculate the adjusted cost of debt by adding state taxes of 3% to the U. S. statutory tax rate 35%. In WACC calculation, marginal tax rate should be used as a corporate tax rate for the future estimate. We can use Yield to Maturity (YTM) on 20-year Nike Inc. Bond issued in1996 of 6. 75% Cost of Equity The 20-year old U. S. treasury used by Cohen for a short-term investment of NorthPoint for the short-term 3 months to 1 year yields is more suitable. Given the risk-free rate (Rf) of 5. 74%, the market risk premium (Rm-Rf) of 5. 90% and beta value of 0. 80, we can calculate the cost of equity using the CAPM as follows: Cost of equity = Rf + ? *(Rm-Rf) = 5. 75%+0. 80(5. 90%) = 10. 46% Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC) We calculate the WACC of Nike Inc. using the weights and costs of debt and equity using the following formula WACC = Wd Kd(1-T) + We Ke. = 10. 05% x 7. 5 %( 1-38%) + 10. 46% x 89. 95% = 0. 4682% + 9. 4083% = 9. 8765% The weighted average cost of capital for Nike Inc. is approximately 10% percent. Recommendation Given the stock price at WACC of approx. 10% ,stock price should be greater than $50. 92, which is higher than current stock price $42. 09. This shows that the current stock of Nike is undervalued and is discounted rate of 11. 17%. Cohen’s WACC of 8. 4% of the stock was undervalued compared to 10%. Therefore Kim Ford should invest in the Nike for her mutual fund.

Radioisotopes: Properties and Uses

Radioisotopes: Properties and Uses Introduction to radioisotopes All matter is made up from elements as carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The smallest part of each element which is identical to one another is called an atom. Atoms can be further divided into three substructures which is proton, electron and neutron. The atoms of different elements differ in these three substructures. The number of protons in each atom of a particular element is called the atomic number or the proton number, Z. The nuclei of an atom contain neutrons as well as protons. The mass of an atom is almost entirely due to the protons and neutrons. Thus the mass number, A is the total number of protons plus neutrons which is also known as nucleon number. Isotopes refer to the same element having different mass number. The different in mass number will have the isotopes to share the similar chemical properties but differ in physical properties. For instance, chlorine occur naturally as 35Cl and 37Cl. Figure 1: Atomic notation Isotopes occur naturally and artificially. They can either be in stable or unstable condition. Most of the isotopes which occur in nature are stable. The forces within their nuclei are sufficient to keep the protons and neutrons in the same arrangement indefinitely. However, a few naturally occurring isotopes and almost all man made ones are unstable. Unstable nuclei can change in to a more stable arrangements by releasing energy and different types of particles. The energy and particles emitted is called radioactive decay. The particular isotopes of elements with nuclei that can undergo radioactive decay are called radioisotopes. The amount of energy and the types of particles released are measure by using Geiger counter and photographic film. Radioisotopes cover a very wide range of usage including in energy generation, industries, food processing, medical field and agriculture. Table 1: Examples of natural occurring and man-made radioisotopes Types of radioisotopes Element Isotope Natural occuring Chlorine Chlorine-35, Chlorine-37 Man-made Promethium promethium-146 Application of radioisotope technology in Malaysia 2.1 Gamma Radiography One of the application of radioisotopes in Malaysia is in the Gamma radiography technology. Gamma Radiography behave in much the same way as x-rays screen baggage at airports. But in contrast to the bulky machine needed to produce x-rays, all that is needed to radiate gamma rays is a small pellet of radioactive material in a sealed capsule made of titanium. The capsule is placed on one side of the object to be screened while a photographic film is placed on the other side. Just like x-rays, gamma rays pass through the object and projects an image to the film. Similar to x-rays that show a break in a bone, gamma rays show flaws or empty spaces in metal castings or welded joints. The technique makes inspection for internal defects without damage involving critical components possible. The sources for Gamma rays are usually more portable than x-ray equipment so they possess a clear advantage in certain applications such as in remote areas. In contrast to x-ray sources that emit a broad band of radiation, gamma sources emit at most a few discrete wavelengths. Gamma sources may also have much higher energy than all but cost cheaper than x-ray equipment thus providing an advantage for such radiography. Gamma radiography is also used in an oil or gas pipeline where special film is taped over the weld around the outside of the pipe. An equipment called pipe crawler has a shielded radioactive source down from the inside of the pipe to the position of the weld. Along the pipe line, the radioactive source is exposed producing a radiographic image of the on the film. The film is later developed to images and further examined for signs of potential flaws in the weld. X-ray equipment can only be used when electric power is available and the object to be x-rayed is small and mobile enough to be taken to the x-ray source and radiographed. Radioisotopes have bigger advantage in that sense because they can be taken to the site to examine an object and no external power is needed. The only drawback is that they cannot be simply turned off thus the equipment must be properly shielded during application. Different types of isotopes are used for different situation. Examples of radioisotopes used in gamma radiography are ytterbium-169 to test material up to 15 mm thick and light alloys to 45 mm and iridium-192 to test material 12 to 60 mm thick and light alloys up to 190 mm. 2.2 Gauging The radiation that originated from radioisotopes will have its intensity reduced by the material between the radioactive source the detector. Detectors are designed to measure the magnitude of the reduction. As the result, the same principle is able to be used to gauge the presence or the absence and even to measure the quantity and density of objects between the source and a detector. One of the advantage in using radioisotopes in gauging or measurement is the zero contact with the material being gauged. A huge list of processing industries is making use of fixed gauges to control the flow of materials in production line utilizing radioisotopes technology. The height of the coal in a container that is used to carry coal is able to be determined by using high energy gamma sources at different heights along one side with detectors directed across the load thus registering the breaking of the beam causing the coal in the container to level. This type of gauge is one of the most common industrial applications of radioisotopes. Equipment used in plastic film manufacturing utilize radioisotope gauging using beta particles to measure and control the thickness of the plastic film produced. The film is rolled at high speed between the radioactive source and its detector to control the plastic film thickness. Beta gauges are used to control the paper thickness at speeds of up to 400 ms-1 in paper manufacture lines. While the intensity of radiation radiated from a radioisotope is reduced by material in the radiation beam some extra radiation is reflected back to the source of radiation. The amount of reflected radiation depends to the amount of material in the radiation beam thus can be used to measure characteristics of the material. This application of radioisotopes is used in measuring various types of coating thicknesses. Americium-241 is among the common use of radioisotopes in gauges. 2.3 Insect Control In Malaysia, crop destruction by insects is reaching to about 10% of the total harvest nationwide. Chemical based insecticides have been the usual weapon for years in effort to minimize these losses yet they have not been very effective. This is due to some insects have grew resistant to the insecticides applied as well as some of them leave harmful residues on plants. Sterilizing insects is one solution making use of radioisotopes. The radioisotopes technology in pest control called Sterile Insect Technique or short formed as Sterile Insect Technique comprising huge numbers of insects involving a process to irradiate their eggs using gamma radiation before they hatch to sterilise the insects. The sterile male insects will then be released in huge numbers in the areas of infestation. This ensure that there are no offspring are produced when they mate. The repeated releases of sterilised males to the area caused the population of the insect in the affected area is tremendously reduced. Several Sterile Insect Technique operations have been implemented in Malaysia involving common paddy pest like brown plant hopper that was then declared a complete success. A very successful Sterile Insect Technique campaign was extended to aedes mosquito leading to health benefits to humans. Some of the livestock are unable to be farmed as a result of the tsetse fly which has parasite trypanosome inside their body causing the sleeping sickness disease on cattle. Thanks to the application of radioisotopes in pest controls this situation is starting to change. Three United Nation organizations that is the IAEA, the FAO and the World Health Organisation (WHO) are promoting this radioisotopes technology in many other countries. 2.4 Food Preservation A major amount of food harvested in Malaysia is lost because of spoilage caused by microbes and pests. In a hungry world it’s a luxury we cannot afford. The reduction of food spoilage due to infestation is very important. It is imperative in Malaysia with hot and humid climates throughout the year that favour the survival of microbes and pest. This grave situation lead to the use of irradiation technology in food preservation. This radioisotopes technology is widely used in over 40 countries where health authorities have approved the use of irradiation involving more than 60 kinds of food ranging from spices, grains, fruit, vegetables and meat. Irradiation is able to replace the use of hazardous chemical to eliminate insects from infesting dried fruit, grain, legumes, and spices. Besides to reduce spoilage after harvesting, application of food irradiation is driven by risks about food-borne diseases as well as rapidly increasing international trade in food stocks which ought to meet certain standards of quality. On our nation recent trip into space, our astronauts also eat foods preserved by irradiation technology. Food irradiation is done by exposing high levels of gamma radiation to raw foods to kills bacteria and other hazardous microorganisms without reducing the nutritional value of food itself. This is so far the only way of destroying bacterial pathogens in raw and frozen food. Recommendation of radioisotope applications for country that lacks natural resources 3.1 Gamma Radiography Under the effort of making full use of radioisotopes technology in in under developed countries, gamma radiography is one of the considered technique. Being a country with limited resources, it is the utmost importance not to waste even a particle of available resources. This is mainly highly applicable in the production line in industries such as mills as well as gas and petroleum pipe lines. By introducing gamma radiography in industries, there will be an optimum usage of resources. That can be done by minimizing the waste of resources mainly related to the maintenance of production line. The use of gamma radiography over x-rays devices to identify the flaws in the production line is able to reduce the maintenance cost. Maintenance involving a remote equipment such as gas and petroleum pipeline can also be done much easier and cost wise by utilizing radiography technology. This will boost the undergoing development effort in developing under developed countries by two main strategy that is optimum usage of resources and cost efficient maintenance line. 3.2 Insect Control Limited food reserve is a critical problem that should be addressed involving under developed countries. Starvation has become the number one killer for many decades in under developed countries especially in Africa region. This has something to do with the poor food and resources management as well as the invasion of crop and plants by insects. Not only insects play a major role in causing starvation, they also affect the declining of health quality of a country by spreading fatal sickness such as malaria. The use of radioisotopes in a technique called Sterile Insect Technique or also known as SIT will be able to reduce starvation in under developed countries from a higher level of perspective. In conjunction to the effort of other countries to continue providing aid in food material by sending raw food material and improving health quality by sending respective vaccine to the under developed countries, the country itself has to come up with a more effective way to come out of these problem in the long run. The introduction to Sterile Insect Technique might be a good start. This technique without doubt will have positive impacts in reducing the number of crop destroying and diseases carrying insects tremendously. 3.3 Food Preservation Being able to harvest crop is one thing, while the ability to have the stock preserved for a long run use is another different thing. The inability to preserve food stock in an efficient way will only cause a major food spoilage before they can even be distributed to the citizen. By implementing the use of radioisotopes technology to preserve food using irradiation technique help to prevent food spoilage from happening providing an extra amount of effective time for the food to reach its respective consumers. As a result, consumers has better access to ready stock food as well as contribute to the positive impact in reducing starvation in under developed countries. Irradiation technique cover another aspect beside food preservation that is eliminating the risk of food borne diseases to be spread among the consumers. Exposure of gamma radiation to food has more positive impact besides extending food lifespan itself. It also indirectly improve the health quality of the citizen by avoiding unnecessary diseases that might come together with the food consumed. Impacts of radioisotopes application 4.1 Gamma Radiography The technology involving radioisotopes application in gamma radiography equipment has its own benefits mainly to the industries. This including the reduction of cost in buying gamma radiography equipment over x-ray machine. Cost reduction can also be related to the need of external electrical power by x-ray machine as compare to gamma radiography equipment that does not require power to operate. Gamma radiography has also makes the maintenance process much easier by eliminating the need to dismantle production line machine component to identify flaws. The use of gamma radiography has minimal risk to the industry. The worst case to happen is the exposure to the staff operating the maintenance and inspection procedure. Exposure to gamma radiation may lead to the degeneration of health depends on the level amount of exposure received. To prevent this, the standard in manufacturing the sources of gamma radiation must be controlled. That of course to make sure the use of titanium case as the main material for radioactive capsules. Radiation suit must also be worn by maintenance staff at all times while operating such procedures. 4.2 Insect Control Sterile Insect Technique or SIT has been proven effective in controlling insect population which has greatly contributed in improving crops production as well as reducing the number of health cases related to diseases carrying insects. The use of radioisotopes technology over conventional chemical insecticides also reduce the risk of hazardous chemical substance. This provide a much cleaner pest and insect control mechanism mainly in agriculture. While SIT continue to carry such good reputation in agriculture, there has been some debate that the radiation might spread to general population not only affecting insects but also to the environment where the insects are released at. In contrary to that concern, the use of SIT is a calculated risk that ensure a zero harm to the environment. This was made sure by thorough research programmes to select the most suitable radioisotopes to be used in agriculture. The main criteria of radioisotopes used is the rate of half-life cycle and the minimal impact to the environment. Plus, the sterilization takes place in a controlled lab involving the exposure of radiation to the insects before it hatches. The insect will only be released to designed areas after they hatches and at the end of the half life cycle. 4.1 Food Preservation Food irradiation has become the most reliable way of preserving food. In contrary to other preservation method, food irradiation does not alter the taste and the structure of the preserved food. Irradiation also covers a very wide range of food including meat, grains and vegetables. Plus, food radiation also kill potential harmful microorganism that might harm human health. Like any other radioisotopes applications, irradiation has cause some concern to the society. One of the issues that came up is whether or not the radioisotopes used will affect ones who consume food preserved by irradiation. Radiation poisoning can be fatal to human thus elevating the number of people questioning the reliability of this technology. Little that they know that the technique is a result of numerous trials and research and decades of development before it was approved to be used in food preservation. Irradiation uses a safe amount of radiation which has already been proved harmless to human. Apart of the health issue posed by irradiation, this particular method of food preservation also has limitation on extending food lifespan. This related to the application involving meat preservation which still need a proper refrigeration to stay fresh. Conclusion Radioisotopes has been very beneficial to mankind. The application cover a wide range of field including gamma radiography, insect control and food preservation. Since the application of radioisotopes in atomic bomb, this technology were regarded as the most promising application of our new knowledge of the atom. Venturing into new fields come together with substantial risks. Risks due to our ignorance of what and how it should be used as well as risks due to the lack ethical values in developing radioisotopes technology. It is up to us to make full use of this great technology without diverging from our concern in ethics and scientific values.

Study into the Prevalence of FGM in Nigeria

Study into the Prevalence of FGM in Nigeria 2. METHODOLOGY 2.1 Data The Nigerian Demographic Health Surveys (NDHS) of 2013 supporting evidence and additional sources of data from published reports of NDHS 2013 have been used in this study. Datasets for 2013 Nigerian DHS were downloaded following approval from measuredhs.com. Authorisation was obtained via registering with measuredhs.com, requesting permission to use datasets. Permission to use data was granted via email. (Appendix I). Demographic Health surveys have been ongoing for over 30 years in over 90 countries with over 300 surveys aimed at fostering global knowledge of health and population trends in developing countries. DHS surveys are nationally representative household surveys in women aged 15-49 (and sometimes men aged 15-49) which yield internationally comparable data on health indicators in developing countries. Datasets produced from this surveys are owned by measuredhs.com as part of the projects implemented by Macro International, with its funding from USAID. In most countries the DHS surveys are conducted every five years providing retrospective estimates of four years including year of study, with large samples from households through face to face interviews using standardised questionnaires designed to gather information on female genital cutting, maternal and child health, nutrition, HIV/AIDS, family planning, gender, malaria as well as the socioeconomic and demographic characteristics. DHS surveys involve large samples In Nigeria, the National Population Commission (NPC) representing the Federal Government of Nigeria, conducts the survey with technical assistance from Macro International. The purpose of this data collected is to direct policy making, planning, monitoring and evaluation of programmes. Two phases are involved; First phase involves enumeration of urban and rural areas in clusters based on national population distributions. Eligible households are selected using systematic sampling, allowing for a large sample to achieve statistically significant results (Hajian-Tilaki, 2011). The second phase involves data collection using the three standard DHS questionnaires (household, women and men questionnaires). In the Nigerian Demographic Health Survey 2013, data was collected over five months, completed questionnaires were then edited, processed in CSPro computer package and all that was cleaned. This ensures accuracy of information and confidentiality to participants. Data collected is standardized by weighting adjusting for over and under sampling to produce representative results (NDHS, 2013). The NDHS 2013 facilitates a comprehensive picture of the current global trends on knowledge and prevalence of FGM among women and their daughters, types of circumcision, age at circumcision, and attitudes toward the practice to be constructed. Prior to NDHS Surveys of 2013 there were subsequent surveys in 1999, 2003, 2008 which collected data on FGM. This surveys reported prevalence of FGM in Nigeria amongst women age 15 to 49 as shown in table below: Table 2.1 showing prevalence of FGM in Nigeria from NDHS surveys. The prevalence of FGM in Nigeria from 2003 to 2008 recorded an increase and this was partly from the use of a new definition for what constitutes as FGM and also differences in the data available for selecting the sample. Interviewers used in the northeast of Nigeria included local forms of cutting and scraping of the vaginal walls in their definition of what constitutes FGM. The data bases for selecting the samples for the Nigeria DHS of 2003 and 2008 were relatively different, hence that made the distribution of the samples by region variant. (Yoder et al 2013). In the 2013 NDHS, the definition of FGM explicitly followed the WHO definition of FGM. In dissecting trends linked with FGM in Nigeria, it is unlikely that comparing prevalence of FGM using Nigeria DHS over years will give valid reasons for the trends over the years due to differences mentioned earlier (NDHS, 2013). 2.2 Variables The drivers of FGM from previous studies identified as mix of cultural, religious and social factors within families and communities. The variables of interest in this study are those related to these drivers of FGM and are classified as social, cultural, economic and geographical factors (WHO, 2014). For effective analyses some of the variables have been recoded. A full list of variables is attached in Appendix II. The outcome or dependent variable considered in this analyses is FGM; whether a woman had FGM or not. Other secondary outcomes of interest in this study is who performs FGM, perspectives and opinions on FGM were also examined (further categorized in table 2.1). The main independent variable in this study is Age at time of survey which serves as an indicator of the birth cohort of the participant. The exposure variables of interest in this study- residence, region- in order to analyse subpopulation trends. Other variables included in this study religion, ethnicity, education and wealth. The variable wealth index, measures a household relative economic status. This is calculated by a process which recodes and pools together data on household assets such as type of toilet, ownership of durable goods, etc. to produce a continuous standardized scale. This variables although not exhaustive have been selected because of their association with culture, socio-economic status which have an impact on the FGM practice (WHO, 2014). The relationship examined in this study will use the following variables Table 2.1 Definition and categorization of variables. *Types of FGM in table above (a) type I and II; flesh removed from genital area (b) type IV; genital area nicked no flesh removed (c); type III genital area closed. WHO classification for FGM (WHO, 2014). **All major ethnic groups in Nigeria and FGM practicing groups of significance from NDHS 2013 survey. 2.2 Data Analysis 2.2. 1 Conceptual Framework for analysing trends linked with FGM in Nigeria (WHO, 2014; NDHS Reports, 2013). The framework for analysis of trends linked with FGM will take in to cognizance sociodemographic factors that can confound or mediate the practice of FGM in Nigeria. This factors are shown below: Figure 2.1 above showing conceptual framework for analysis of FGM trends. 2.4 Data Analysis All analyses in this study were computed using SPSS v.22. The Data was weighted and complex sampling procedures used to minimise errors from sampling techniques used in NDHS 2013, thus ensuring results are valid (IBM 2015). The sampling weight was used for all analysis. A major part of the analyses involved handling of data using syntax files, a programme of orders which automatically computes analysis and can be saved. Some programmes used for the analyses can be found in Appendix III. The following statistical analysis were carried out to achieve the aim and objectives of this study: 2.4.1 Descriptive Analysis The analysis examined the following areas: General distribution of background characteristics of women age 15-49: frequency of background characteristics General Distribution of FGM related perspectives and opinions- frequencies of perspectives and opinions in the following: Ever heard of FGM Age women had FGM Prevalence of FGM including types Who performed FGM Number of daughters with FGM Beliefs on FGM required by religion Views on if FGM practice should continue or stop. Trends of FGM prevalence including types of FGM: percentage of women with FGM and its relationship by background characteristics, percentage of types of FGM and its relationship by background characteristics. Trends of perspectives and opinions on FGM by background characteristics: as listed above from b i, ii, iv, v, vi and vii. Trends of beliefs on FGM required by religion: percentage of women with FGM by beliefs on FGM required by religion Trends on opinions of FGM practice should stop or continue: percentage of women with FGM opinion on practice should stop or continue Trends of perspectives and opinions on FGM by age. Besides percentages and confidence intervals, chi-square test for trends are computed to ascertain the statistical significance of these associations. 2.4.2 Logistic regression analysis The variables on women background characteristics and perspectives of FGM were fitted into regression models in order to determine the extent they predict the outcome i.e. having FGM (b) to ascertain if the practice is declining or increasing by birth cohorts. This form of analysis involves computing bivariate and multivariate analyses using the main outcome FGM as the dependent variable and the previous variables (i.e. background characteristics) as the independent variables. In the bivariate analysis all independent variables except region were fitted into the model to estimate the crude trends in having FGM. Region was exempted to minimise confounding. A multivariate analysis involved fitting the same variables into the model controlling for age, education, ethnicity, economic status (wealth), urban-rural residence, and religion. The aim is to ascertain the relative importance of each variable as a predictor of having FGM. The reference categories for each variable fitted into the regression model are: age (15-19) education (no education), ethnic group (others), Residence (rural), religion (Islam), wealth index (richest).

The Role of Marlowes Excessive Drinking :: essays research papers

The Role of Marlowe's Excessive Drinking   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Throughout the book 'The Big Sleep'; the character Marlowe is a detective working in Criminal Justice. This job seems to bring about a lot of stress to Marlowe, and in order to cope; he turns to drinking which relaxes him. Although he is an alcoholic he still is able to function and get his investigations done. He is a functional alcoholic who abuses alcohol constantly and has a great desire for it for various reasons. Some of the reasons that may be directly linked to Marlowe's abuse of alcohol boredom, psychological and or physical dependence and sometimes he drinks casually and socially. But job- related stress is the main reason Marlowe turns to alcohol because there are times he is able to drink on the job, drinking helps him relax and cope with his job-related stress, and alcohol is the agent that helps him deal with those problems.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One of the reasons that may cause Marlowe to turn to alcohol is his job. His job as an investigator sometimes turns stressful and alcohol helps him relax and get his mind off the job. Dealing with people and criminals constantly through out the day on the job can be stressful. Besides the fact that he must deal with Carmen's craziness, as the author describes her to be. Marlowe at one moment states 'I went to bed full of whiskey and frustration.'; This shows us that he drinks to help deal with the frustration he goes through and whiskey helps him.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Often times Marlowe drinks while working. Usually when socializing with someone. In a conversation with Eddie Mars Marlowe says 'I made myself a drink and was drinking it when the phone rang.'; In another situation while talking to Carmen he mentioned that he is going to go mix himself a drink and offers her one as well. After saying yes, Carmen and Marlowe drink together. This is all taking place while Marlowe is on the job, again drinking to get his mind off of other things and relax. This shows that Marlowe is not just a social or casual drinker, he is an alcoholic and has some form of dependency to alcohol, not to mention a great tolerance as well. Marlowe recognizes this and drinks in front of people, with people while along, and he mentioned he doesn't care if anyone knows. When people are vulnerable Marlowe offers drinks and in most situations finds himself a drinking partner.

Pride and Prejudice Essay -- English Literature

Pride and Prejudice 1. How do the narrative techniques of ‘showing’ and ‘telling’ work at this point in the novel? 2. How does this passage relate to the themes of the novel as a whole? The first part of the passage is dialogic, in that it contains only conversation between Lydia and Mrs Bennet. Jane Austen, through the use of narrative techniques, gives the reader an in-depth understanding of the story. One of these techniques is ‘showing’, which with the use of dialogue, allows us to gain an understanding of the characters. The characters of Lydia and Mrs Bennet, through the use of dialogue in this passage, are ‘shown’ to be excessively concerned with the expectations of the society in which they live, by being obsessed with the importance of marriage. Lydia is passionate in her manner; this is ‘shown’ to the reader when she talks of getting husbands for her sisters, â€Å"They must all go to Brighton. That is the place to get husbands†. She is pleased with herself and even boastful in her ability of having secured a husband before any of her sisters. She puts him on a pedestal, ‘shown’ by the narrator, with statements such as â€Å"Is he not a charming man?† and â€Å"I am sure my sisters must all envy me†. Austen also ‘shows’ how eager both Lydia and her mother are about securing husbands for her sisters, with the use of this narrative technique of ‘showing’, using phrases such as â€Å"there will be some balls, and I will take care to get good partners for them all† (Lydia) and â€Å"I should like it beyond anything!† (Mrs Bennet). This dialogic form of ‘showing’, allows us to view both characters during their conversation with each other, firmly establishing the characters and views of Mrs Bennet and Lydia. This ‘show... ...&P). Then of course there was Miss King, who had come into a fortune of ten thousand pounds; Wickham ‘had paid her not the smallest attention till her grandfather’s death made her mistress of this fortune’, (Page 121 P&P). His ‘distress of circumstances’ compelled him to seek a fortune, for which he would apparently go to any length to secure. We are encouraged by the use of dialogue and narrative to differentiate between Elizabeth’s personal and emotional integrity, Lydia’s immorality, and Mrs Bennet’s persistence in securing husbands for them all, no matter what it takes. Bibliography  · Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen  · The Realist Novel – - Part One: Chapter One – The Genre Approach Chapter Two – Reading Pride and Prejudice - Part Two: Realism and Romance Realism and the novel form Jane Austen and the war of ideas

Profit Maximization

Firms are in business for a simple reason: To make money. Traditional economic theory suggests that firms make their decisions on supply and output on the basis of profit maximisation. However many Economists and managerial Scientists in our days question that the sole aim of a firm is the maximisation of profits. The most serious critique on the theory of the firm comes from those who question whether firms even make an effort to maximise their profits. A firm (especially a large corporation) is not a single decision-maker but a collection of people within it. This implies that in order to understand the decision-making process within firms, we have to analyse who controls the firm and what their interests are. The fact that most large companies are not run by the their owners is often brought forward to support this claim. A large corporation typically is owned by thousands of shareholders, most of whom have nothing to do with the business decisions. Those decisions are made by a professional management team, appointed by a salaried board of directors. In most cases these managers will not own stock in the company which may lead to strongly differing goals of owners and managers. Since ownership gives a person a claim on the profit of the firm, the greater the firm's profit, the higher the owners† income. Hence the owners goal will be profit maximisation. When managers† salary stays unaffected by higher profits they may pursue other goals to raise their personal utility. This behaviour strikes the critical observer regularly when for example reading or watching the financial media. Managers there often rather mention the rises in sales or the growth of their company rather then the profits. Some economists like Begg (1996) argued that managers have an incentive to promote growth as managers of larger companies usually get higher salaries. Others like Williamson (1964) suggested that managers derive further utility from perquisites such as big offices, many subordinate workers, company cars etc. Fanning (1990) gives a rather bizarre example: When WPP Group PLC took over the J. Walter Thompson Company, they found that the firm was spending $80,000 p. . to have a butler deliver a peeled orange every morning to one of their executives. An unnecessary cost clearly from the perspective of the company owners. But often it becomes difficult to identify and separate this amenity maximisation from profit maximisation. A corporate jet for example could be either justified as a profit maximising response to the high opportunity cost of a top executive or an expensive and costly executive status symbol. Baumol (1967) hypothesised that managers often attach their personal prestige to the company†s revenue or sales. A prestige maximising manager therefore would rather attempt to maximise the firms† total revenue then their profits. Figure 1 illustrates how the output choices of revenue- and profit maximising managers differ. The figure plots the marginal revenue and marginal cost curves. Total Revenue peaks at x r , which is the quantity at which the marginal revenue curve crosses the horizontal axis. Any quantity below x r , marginal revenue will be positive and the total revenue curve will rise as output goes up. Hence a revenue-maximising manager would continue to produce additional output regardless of its effects on cost. Given this information one might ask why the owners don†t intervene when their appointed managers don†t direct their actions in the interest of the owners, by maximising profits. First of all, the owners will not have the same access to information as the managers do. Where Information relates to professional skills of Business administration as well as those of the firms inner structure and its market enviroment. Furthermore, when confronted with the owners demands for profit maximising policies, a clever manager can always argue that her engagement in activities, like a damaging price war or an expensive advertising campaign serve the long-run prospect of high profits. This excuse is very difficult to challenge until it is too late. Another aspect is that managers aiming to maximise growth of their company (expecting higher salaries, power, prestige, etc. ) often operate with a profit constraint. A profit constraint is the minimum level of profit needed to keep the shareholders happy. The effects of such a profit constraint are illustrated in Figure2. Figure2 shows a total profit curve (T? ). T? is derived from the difference between TR and TC at each output level. If the minimum acceptable level of profit is ? , any output greater then Q3 will result in a profit below ?. Thus a sales-maximising manager will opt for Q3 which gives the highest level of sales at the minimum possible profit. This however would not be the profit maximising option. In order to maximise profits the manager would have to chose an output level that creates Q2, where profits are highest but sales lower then in Q3. So given this conflict of interests between the owners and the managers of a firm? What are the possible solutions available to the owners, to make their agents work in their interest? It is often suggested that an effective way to control the managers behaviour and bring it in line with the owners interests, is to make the managers owners themselves by giving them a share in the company. However, research by De Meza & Lockwood (1998) suggests that even with the managers owning assets, their performance does not necessarily become more profit raising. Rajan & Zingales (1998) assessed the impact of power and access to it on the behaviour and performance of managers. Their findings suggest that the power gained by access to critical resources is more contingent than ownership on managers or agents to make the right investment and decisions then ownership. They also report adverse effects of ownership on the incentive to specialise. Other ways to control managers include performance based pay, which can prove to be effective in the short-run but again, the long-run perspective of the firm may suffer, when managers neglect crucial Long-run investments into Research and Development, restructuring, equipment or advertising to raise short-run profits and hence their own salaries. In conclusion it is important to note that profit maximisation fails to demonstrate a general validity when applied as a theory of firm-behaviour. The real world businesses often operate on a multi-dimensional basis with many confronting interests and aims. As well as differing short-run and long run aims. Therefore profit-maximisation should be regarded as one possible goal of a firm but not necessarily its sole one. There is also a difference to be noted between the size of firms. A small family-run business for instance can easily adopt a pure profit-maximising approach, since the utility of its owners equals that of the labour-force and the management. In this setting, the income will equal profit. Therefore it is imperative to assess and develop a theory of firm behaviour on the different classes of firms with a perspective to their individual differences in management, ownership and market enviroment.

Learning Organization Essay

The evolution of â€Å"Organizational Learning† has started in 1938 when John Dewey, in his book â€Å"Experience and Education†, publicized the concept of experiential learning as an ongoing cycle of activity. But, how did this concept emerge? Or, what does it really mean for the businesses? In order to understand this, we have to analyze the problems and needs. The core idea behind â€Å"learning organization† is that organizations of all kinds will not survive, let alone thrive, if they do not acquire an ability to adapt continuously to an increasingly unpredictable future. Or in other words, in order to survive and succeed for businesses, it is essential to establish or build stronger relationships with customers, where there are rapidly changing, turbulent and/or highly competitive market. Through learning, organizations may be better equipped to meet the challenges caused by continuous environmental turbulence. In addition, where products and processes can rapidly be copied, according to Arie de Geus, head of strategic planning department of Royal/Dutch Shell, the only real source of competitive advantage is to stimulate learning by employees. This may allow these individuals to identify new ways of working more closely with customers, which in turn permits the organization to differentiate itself from competition. However, the style of learning has to reflect the operational needs of the organization. For instance, a manufacturer which has adopted a transactional marketing style would probably choose to operate in a relatively stable market, produce standard components and focus primarily on offering adequate quality goods at a competitive price. In such circumstances, assuming that the organizational systems are based around repetition of routine procedures, the firm would probably be well advised to focus upon creating a single-loop learning environment as the most appropriate way fur sustaining employee development aimed at organizational efficiency. 2 On the other hand, in market situations where firms face periods of significant, discontinuous change and/or there is a desire to differentiate  the firm from competition through the adoption of a relationship marketing style, then possibly an incremental, more adaptive learning style, which is called double-loop learning may be more appropriate, so to involve the exploitation of new knowledge to evolve new practices, perspectives and operational frameworks. Figure 1: Single- vs. double-loop learning. II. DEFINITION OF LEARNING ORGANIZATIONS Keeping in mind what we have so far discussed, now let us check some definitions of the Learning Organizations. Peter M. Senge, who is also named as the father of this concept, describes learning organizations as organizations where people can continuously expand their capacity to create results which they truly desire. In such organizations, new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, and collective aspiration is set free. Individuals learn to learn together. He declares â€Å"Deep down, we are all learners. It is not only our nature to learn, but we love to learn. â€Å" Chris Argyris and Donald Schon defined the concept of learning organizations through the help of the definition of organizational learning: where the process of â€Å"detection and correction of errors† rules. 3 Moreover, how de Geus defined learning organizations is very remarkable: â€Å"Forget your tired old ideas about leadership. The most successful corporation of the 1990s will be something called a learning organization? The ability to learn faster than your competitors, may be the only sustainable competitive advantage. â€Å" One last definition might be the one of Kim, D., â€Å"a learning organization is one that consciously manages its learning process through an inquiry-driven orientation among all its members†. III. FIVE DISCIPLINES OF SENGE I have already mentioned that Senge was called as the father of the concept of â€Å"Learning Organizations†. When he first published his book The Fifth Discipline: The Art & Practice of The Learning Organization in 1990, he caught a significant attention from academics and the business world. Peter M. Senge (1947- ) was named a ? Strategist of the Century’ by the Journal of Business Strategy, one of 24 men and women who have ? had the greatest impact on the way we conduct business today’. Moreover, Senge has founded the Center for Organizational Learning at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1991 while he is also the founding chairperson of the â€Å"Society for Organizational Learning† (SoL) and a senior lecturer at MIT. Being maybe the most important, namely the person having the most influence in Learning Organizations I will study his so called five disciplines in my project. 4 3. 1 PERSONAL MASTERY 3. 1. 1 Introduction to Personal Mastery  Senge says, â€Å"Organizations learn only through individuals who learn. Individual learning does not guarantee organizational learning. But without it no organizational learning occurs. † The people are the main active force in every aspect of the business. Since, people have their own will and mind, and their own way of thinking; it is essential that they be sufficiently motivated to challenge the goals of growth and complexity. In today’s practices, the manager should not be willing to dominate controlling, planning and organizing the workers activities. Instead they should be enabling the people in the business have their own enriching lives through establishing and maintaining the conditions needed. One should be living his own life from a creative viewpoint, so as to turn the life into a creative work. Personal Mastery is the phrase Senge and his colleagues use for the discipline of personal growth and learning. People with high levels of personal mastery are continually expanding their ability to create the results in life they truly seek. From their quest for continual learning comes the spirit of the learning organization. 3. 1. 1. 1 Mastery and Proficiency. There are two main underlying movements when personal mastery becomes a discipline, one of which is always continually making clear what is important for oneself, whereas the other movement is to continually learn how to see the current reality more clearly. It is vital to know where you are now in moving toward a desired destination. People with a high level of personal mastery share several basic characteristics, one of which is that they have a special sense of purpose that lies behind their visions and goals. 5 For such a person, a vision is an aspiration rather than simply a good idea. One other characteristic is that they live in a continual learning mode, where they never â€Å"arrive†. They know that personal mastery is not something one possesses, but is a process, a lifelong discipline. Those with a high level of personal mastery are acutely aware of their ignorance, their incompetence; and they know, or better to say truly believe that the journey itself is the reward. 3. 1. 1. 2 Why We Want It We want it because people with high levels of personal mastery are more committed, take more initiative, have a broader and deeper sense of responsibility in their work, and learn faster. Kazou Inamori, founder and chairman emeritus of Kyocera Corporation and president of the Inamori Foundation, who holds a bachelor of sciences in applied chemistry, says that â€Å"Our employees agreed to live in a community in which they would not exploit each other, but rather help each other so that we may each live our life fully. † 3. 1. 1. 3 Resistance One of the issues against the personal mastery is the resistance, which in turn is a valid fear for companies in which the managers couldn’t build a shared vision along with shared mental models. It is useless to have personal mastery as solely without other disciplines of the organizational learning. That’s why we always have to keep in mind that personal mastery must go together with a shared vision and the other disciplines. 6 3. 1. 2 The Discipline of Personal Mastery 3. 1. 2. 1 Personal Vision Most adults have goals and objectives, but these are not visions. Thus, we can say that most have little sense of real vision. When asked what they want, many adults will say what they want to get rid of, as if they delineate themselves as given-ups, rather than grown-ups. Senge points that â€Å"The ability to focus on ultimate intrinsic desires, not only on secondary goals, is a cornerstone of personal mastery. † Vision is different from purpose, since purpose is similar to a direction, a general heading, whereas vision is a specific destination, a picture of a desired future. Vision is the image of your desired future. It shouldn’t be confused with competition; it shouldn’t be isolated from the idea of one’s purpose. It is something which has personal aspects along with material aspects, such as where we want to live and how much of savings we want, or issues like health or freedom contribute, relatively. 3. 1. 2. 2 Holding Creative Tension One testimony of Senge says that there is something called the creative tension which is the source of energy derived from the gap between one’s vision and where it stands in reality. This gap can push someone forward to get closer to the vision; however it might also discourage some other people, so as to leading to feelings and emotions associated with anxiety. Imagine a rubber band, stretched between your vision and the current reality. When stretched, the rubber band creates tension, representing the tension between vision and current reality. What does tension seek? Resolution or release. There 7 are two possible ways for the tension to resolve itself: pull reality toward the vision or pull the vision toward reality. Which occurs will depend on whether we hold steady to the vision. Figure 3: Creative Tension Negative emotions caused by anxiety of the creative tension, shouldn’t be realized as the creative tension itself. What Senge argues, is that after some time what we call emotional tension will arise due to the negative emotions. In such cases, we feel deeply discouraged about a vision that is not happening and tend to lower the vision as an immediate so called remedy. It is clear that escaping emotional tension is easy; but what we really pay against is giving up something what we profoundly want, our vision. In the context of organizations we can say that goals are slowly lowered because of low tolerance for emotional tension. What we have to do is to understand thoroughly what the creative tension is and allow it to operate without lowering our vision; only then the vision becomes an active force in personal mastery. The gap in between should be used to generate energy for change. 8 Mastery of creative tension transforms the way we judge failure. It is simply an opportunity for learning. 3. 1. 2. 3 â€Å"Structural Conflict†: The Power of your Powerlessness A research done by Robert Fritz has shown that practically all of us have a â€Å"dominant belief that we are not able to fulfill our desires†. This in turn, is an obstacle one should get rid off. These beliefs, which are mandatory as a child to survive, were taught us so that we learnt our limitations. Most of us hold one of two contradictory beliefs that intrinsically limit our ability to create what so called we really want. The more common belief is in our powerlessness, namely our inability to bring into being all the things we really care about, whereas the other belief focuses on unworthiness, that we do not deserve to have what we truly desire. Fritz uses a metaphor to describe how contradictory underlying beliefs work as a system, which he calls the â€Å"structural conflict†, the metaphor counter to achieving our goals, through symbolizing the concept by another rubber band example. Figure 4: Effect of â€Å"structural conflict† to the creative tension. Later on, he identifies three generic so called strategies to cope with the forces of structural conflict, each of which has its own limitations. Accordingly, one is letting 9 our vision to erode. This strategy will lead to the sacrifice of what we truly want as discussed earlier. The second strategy is to â€Å"conflict manipulation† which is actually the strategy of people who mostly worry about failure. What they do is to focus on avoiding what they do not want to happen. This strategy makes one to spend his/her life in worry and fear. For those following this strategy, which is also called the â€Å"negative vision†, there is little joy in their life, even when they achieve their goals because this time they immediately tend to begin worrying about losing what they have gained. The last and most favorable strategy is defined as the willpower, where we simply â€Å"psyche ourselves up† to overpower all forms of resistance to achieving our goals. Simply saying, motivating through heightened will. In the next section, we will discuss Senge’s strategy for dealing with structural conflict: telling the truth. 3. 1. 2. 4 Commitment to the Truth People often want a technique that they can apply to solve the problem of structural conflict. But, in fact, being committed to the truth is far more powerful than any technique. So, what does it actually mean? It means a relentless willingness to root out the ways we limit or deceive ourselves from seeing what is, and to continually challenge our theories of why things are the way they are. The first critical task in dealing with structural conflicts is to recognize them, and the resulting behavior, when they are operating. This helps us to develop so called internal 10  warning signals, such as when we find ourselves blaming something or someone for our problems. What Senge suggests in this context is that we have to work on developing skills to discuss such situations with the people involved without producing defensiveness. We shouldn’t always act in a manner where we always think of what others have done in the situation, rather we have to concentrate on what we can do. This in other words, relates to the fact that we have to understand, or better to say, realize the situation, the current reality in which we are, so to use this as a generative force. This has even been concluded in religions like Hinduism, Christianity, Islam, Jewish, Buddhism. One example might be the statement of â€Å"The truth shall set you free. † 3. 1. 2. 5 Using the Subconscious One of the most fascinating aspects of people with high levels of personal mastery is their ability to accomplish extraordinarily complex tasks with grace and ease. But, how does this come to happen? It is through the subconscious that all of us deal with complexity. What distinguishes people with high levels of personal mastery is they have developed a higher level of understanding between their normal awareness and their subconscious. Even the daily activities of us like walking, talking, eating or putting on your shoes are enormously complex tasks, for which we have learned the required skills of the tasks, which in turn led that the whole activity gradually shifts from conscious attention to subconscious control. People with high levels of personal mastery focus on the desired result itself, not the process or the means they assume necessary to achieve that result. This allows the person in focusing on the artistry of the result as well. 11 In other words, we can say that we must work at learning how to differentiate what we truly want, from what we think we need to do in order to achieve it. In order to develop a subconscious understanding it is also important to commit to the truth, because when not telling the truth, most people create some level of internal stress. The principle of creative tension recognizes that the subconscious operates most effectively when it is focused clearly on our vision and our current reality. One effective way to focus the subconscious is through imagery and visualization. For instance, world-class swimmers have found that by imagining their hands to be twice their actual size and their feet to be webbed, they actually swim faster. Mental practicing of complex tasks has become a routine psychological training for professional performers from different areas of interest. A strict reliance on only conscious learning could never have achieved this level of artistry, even if there was all the willpower in the world present. Contradictorily, it had to depend on a high level of subconscious understanding. 3. 2 MENTAL MODELS 3. 2. 1 Introduction to Mental Models  Mental models can be described as the views and assumptions we hold in our minds about how things are and how things work. A mental model is like one’s way of looking at what’s happening in the world. In other words, it determines how we think and act. Mental models depend on the past experiences, and the perception as a result of those experiences, and observations. In the introduction I had introduced the experiential learning, which was the style of learning through past experience and some other elements 12 like concrete experience, observation and reflection, and forming abstract concepts. Accordingly, a child without knowing that it might cut his hand might take a knife in his hand and try to push it in his hand. This in fact, will hurt him a lot. However, grown ups already know how to deal with a knife, so they won’t do the same mistake as the child does. All the experiences learnt are added up so to form or build up the mental models. 3. 2. 1. 1 Why the Best Ideas Fail? From the business point of view, one thing which is known by all managers is that many of the best ideas never get put into practice. Even brilliant strategies fail to get translated into action. New insights fail to get put into practice because they conflict with deeply held internal images of how the world works, images that limit us to familiar ways of thinking and acting. That is why the discipline of managing mental models ? surfacing, testing, and improving our internal pictures of how the world works- promises to be a major breakthrough for building learning organizations. Our mental models determine not only how we make sense of the world, but how we take action, namely they shape how we act which puts them into an active sense. But, why are mental models so powerful in affecting what we do? In part, because they affect what we see. As psychologists say, human beings observe selectively. Mental models also exist in the organizations, and also in management. Mental models could cause big losses in the business world as it can also prevent us from seeing the current situation. Loosing America’s car market share to German and Japanese countries was a result of the mental models of the management, where they are prevented to see the situation because of their models in mind, and perceptions. 13 The problems with mental models lie not in whether they are right or wrong-by definition, all models are simplifications. The problems with mental models arise when the models are tacit-when they exist below the level of awareness. 3. 2. 1. 2. Overcoming â€Å"The Basic Diseases of the Hierarchy† In the traditional authoritarian organization, the dogma was managing, organizing, and controlling, whereas in the learning organization, the new dogma will be vision, values, and mental models. In addition, in traditional organizations, merit means doing what the boss wants, openness means telling the boss what he wants to hear, and localness means doing the dirty stuff that the boss doesn’t want to do. However, in learning organizations these concepts will get new understandings. 3. 2. 2. The Discipline of Mental Models Developing an organization’s capacity to work with mental models involves both learning new skills and implementing institutional innovations that help bring these skills into regular practice. 3. 2. 2. 1 Managing Mental Models Throughout An Organization A concept of scenarios should be adapted in pursuit of mental models, so to force managers to consider how they would manage under different alternative paths into the future. This offsets the tendency for managers to implicitly assume a single future. When groups of managers share a range of alternative futures in their mental models, they become more responsive to those changes. 14 Mental modeling should be implemented as a philosophy. It is important to note that the goal in mental modeling is not agreement or congruency. Many mental models can exist at once. What is important is that we have to consider all of them and test against situations that we confront. Only after the process works it leads to congruency. 3. 2. 2. 2 Managing Mental Models At Personal and Interpersonal Levels The learning skills of â€Å"action science† practitioners such as Chris Argyris fall into two broad classes: skills of reflection and skills of inquiry. Where skills of reflection concern slowing down our own thinking process so that we can become more aware of how we form our mental models and the ways they influence our actions, inquiry skills concern how we operate in face-to-face interactions with others, especially in dealing with complex and conflictual issues. Reflection skills start with recognizing â€Å"leaps of abstraction†, which mean that our minds move at lightning speeds. Ironically, this often slows our learning, because we immediately â€Å"leap† to generalizations so quickly that we never think to test them. Namely, leaps of abstraction occur when we move from direct observations to generalization without testing. Here it is important to distinguish direct observation from generalizations inferred from the observation itself. To distinguish it, explicitly separate it from the data which led to it. A second technique from action science is the left-hand column, which in turn is a powerful tool for beginning to see how our mental models operate in particular situations. It reveals ways that we manipulate situations to avoid dealing with how we actually think and feel, and thereby prevent a counterproductive situation from improving. The most important lesson that comes from seeing â€Å"our left-hand columns† is how we undermine opportunities for learning in conflictual situations. Here, a process called â€Å"balancing inquiry and advocacy† comes into action. 15 Managers are mostly trained to be advocates. In many companies, being a competent manager means, being able to solve problems, figuring out what needs to be done, and enlisting whatever support is needed to get it done. In such organizations, employees are rewarded according to their ability to debate forcefully, and influence others, where the inquiry skills are unrecognized. Those rewards unfortunately can bring the employees to managerial positions, where they suddenly face the fact that they do not learn while they should learn. Advocacy without inquiry between two people can end up in vicious circle. The more vehemently one argues, the more it creates a threat to the other’s position, so that the latter argues vehemently, which causes a threat to the first one’s position, therefore, the first one argues even more vehemently. This reinforcing advocacy can be stopped by inquiring. Then it gives a chance for the both parts to understand each other’s conflicts, and reasoning. When in pure advocacy, people do not want to show the weak parts of their reasoning, and discard them. Definitely it does not bring any learning to us. Instead it brings polarization within the group. When operating in pure advocacy, the goal is to win the argument; however, when inquiry and advocacy are combined the goal is no longer â€Å"to win the argument† but to find the best argument out of all. This combination allows us to discover completely new views. What we have to keep in mind is that practicing inquiry and advocacy means being willing to expose the limitations in your own thinking, namely the willingness to be wrong. 16 3. 3 SHARED VISION 3. 3. 1 Introduction to Shared Vision 3. 3. 1. 1 A Common Caring A shared vision is not an idea, it is rather a force in people’s hearts, a force of impressive power. It may be inspired by an idea, but once it goes further ? if it is compelling enough to acquire support of more than one person? then it is no longer an abstraction. It is tangible. People begin to see it as if it exists. Few forces in human affairs are as powerful as shared visions. At its simplest level, a shared vision is the answer to the question, â€Å"What do we want to create? † Just as personal visions are pictures or images people carry in their heads and hearts, so too are shared visions pictures that people throughout an organization carry. When people truly share a vision they are connected, bound together by a common aspiration. Shared vision is one of the vital fundamentals of learning organizations, because it provides energy and also focus for learning. People should have something that really matters to them, something that makes them excited. A shared vision is not one dictated by that top management; it only exists when people are personally committed, since it is their personal vision. 3. 3. 1. 2 Why Shared Visions Matter? In an organization, a shared vision changes people’s relationship with the company. What they so far called as â€Å"their company†, becomes â€Å"our company†. It helps to create a common identity. Only this way, a learning organization can really succeed. You cannot have a learning organization without shared vision. 17 How can a commitment to the long term be fostered is the key question in efforts to develop systems thinking in management. People do not focus on the long term because they have to, but only because they want to. 3. 3. 2 The Discipline of Building Shared Vision Shared visions emerge from personal visions. This is how they derive their energy and how they foster commitment. The management should encourage individuals so as to let them create their own visions, as was told earlier in this project. However, these visions are not the shared vision itself. This is needed so that it will be easier for the individuals to accept visions of others and work in the same manner. In this way, the synergy which will be established is needed for the organization indeed. The shared vision shouldn’t be written and taught to employees because this will establish a fear. Instead, everyone should adopt this vision and commit itself to the whole vision of the organization. 3. 3. 2. 1 From Personal Visions to Shared Visions To make it clearer, let’s imagine a picture of a landscape. When you cut this picture into smaller parts, you will not be able to see the whole sight. However, if you have a picture of an ocean in which all the organisms, like fish, plants, etc. live, and you cut it into pieces, you will still be able to see the whole sight because the vision of the ocean is the same in that part. It’s like the shared vision. When you take the shared vision person by person into consideration you’ll see that they match each other and reflect the whole image. 18 So, it is the fact that when more people come to share a common vision, the vision may not change fundamentally. But it becomes more alive, more real in the sense of a mental reality that people can truly imagine achieving. Writing a vision statement, which is often a one-shot vision, can be a first step in building shared vision but, alone, it rarely makes a vision come alive within an organization. Another problem with the so called one-shot vision that was prepared by the top management is that the resulting vision does not build on people’s personal visions. Contrarily, it only reflects the personal vision of one or two people at the top. The last problem might be explained in the manner as the vision is not a solution to a problem. Building a shared vision must be seen as a central element of the daily work of leaders. It is ongoing and never-ending. It is not truly a shared vision until it connects with the personal visions of people throughout the organization. Moreover, visions that are truly shared take time to emerge. They grow as a by-product of interactions of individual visions. Experience suggests that visions that are genuinely shared require ongoing conversation where individuals not only feel free to express their dreams, but also learn how to listen to each others’ dreams. 3. 3. 2. 2 Spreading Visions: Enrollment, Commitment, and Compliance There is a big difference between compliance and commitment. The committed person brings energy, passion and excitement, which in turn brings the synergy; he does not play by the rules of the game, instead feels responsible for the game, and will not hesitate to change the rules of the game if they stand in the way of achieving vision. On the other hand compliant followers only accept the vision, but do not have a personal desire. They may want it in order to keep their job, or to get a promotion etc. , but they know that it’s not their vision at all. For an organization to survive, it must ensure that a shared vision with the commitment of the individuals is established. 19 However, there are the types of genuine compliant followers, which may often be mistaken for enrollment or commitment. What then is the difference between being genuinely compliant and enrolled and committed? The answer is deceptively simple. People who are enrolled or committed truly want the vision, where genuinely compliant people accept the vision. They may want it in order to keep their job, or to get a promotion etc. , but they know that it’s not their vision at all. 3. 4 TEAM LEARNING 3. 4. 1 Introduction to Team Learning 3. 4. 1. 1 The Potential Wisdom Teams In order to understand team learning, it is important to understand what teams are. The word â€Å"team† can be traced back to the Indo-European word â€Å"deuk† (to pull); it has always included a meaning of â€Å"pulling together†. (The modern sense of team, â€Å"a group of people acting together†, emerged in the sixteenth century) We define â€Å"teams† as any group of people who need each other to accomplish a result. This definition is derived from a statement made by former Royal Dutch/Shell Group Planning coordinator, Arie de Geus: â€Å"The only relevant learning in a company is the learning done by those people who have the power to take action†. Team learning is a process of aligning and developing the capacity of a team to create the results its members truly desire. It builds on the discipline of developing shared vision. It also builds on developing personal mastery, for talented teams are made up of talented individuals. But shared vision and talent are not enough. The world is full of teams of talented individuals who share a vision for a while, yet fail to learn. 20 Here we can discuss the terms unaligned and aligned teams. The fundamental characteristic of the relatively unaligned team is wasted energy. Individuals may work extraordinarily hard, but their efforts do not efficiently translate to team effort. By contrast, when a team becomes more aligned, a commonality of direction emerges, and individuals’ energies harmonize. There is less wasted energy. In fact, a resonance or synergy develops, like the coherent light of a laser rather than the incoherent and scattered light of a light bulb. There is commonality of purpose, a shared vision, and understanding of how to complement one another’s efforts. Individuals do not sacrifice their personal interests to the larger team vision; rather, the shared vision becomes an extension of their personal visions. In fact, alignment is the necessary condition before empowering the individual will empower the whole team. Team learning is possible in every area, sports, business, performing arts, science, etc. It can even have extra ordinary results where the teams can be coordinated and even intelligence of the team can exceed the intelligence of its members totaling. In such an environment, team members can also show a rapid growth, than they could gain individually, namely constructing the synergy. With the changes in the organizations, team learning has never been that important. No matter if it’s a product development team, management team or cross-functional task forces. As they are teams, they are the people who need one another to act. The three critical dimensions of Team Learning can be described as; 1. Insightful thinking is necessary for complex issues. Teams must learn to end up with one more intelligent solution when compared to each of the participants’ solutions. 2. Innovative and coordinated action is vital.